{"id":1238,"date":"2024-09-04T19:06:55","date_gmt":"2024-09-04T19:06:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/?page_id=1238"},"modified":"2024-09-19T20:21:53","modified_gmt":"2024-09-19T20:21:53","slug":"question-2","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/curriculum\/module-2\/question-2\/","title":{"rendered":"Question 2"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"1238\" class=\"elementor elementor-1238\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b037f9e e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"b037f9e\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ebb1acf elementor-widget elementor-widget-breadcrumbs\" data-id=\"ebb1acf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"breadcrumbs.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<p id=\"breadcrumbs\"><span><span><a href=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/\">Home<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f87c16e e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"f87c16e\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7da57da elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7da57da\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><b>Module 2 Supporting Question 2: <br><br>What were treaty talks like for Indigenous and United States signers and negotiators, and how did Indigenous and settler perspectives on land shape treaty negotiations? <\/b><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-00e42d0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-toggle\" data-id=\"00e42d0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"toggle.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9341\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9341\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Learning Objectives<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9341\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9341\"><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">By the end of this exercise, I can\u2026\u00a0<\/span><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">describe the experience of participating in <\/span><b>treaty<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> negotiations, including naming specific negotiation <\/span><b>tactics<\/b><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">analyze how distinct perspectives on land impacted <\/span><b>treaty<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> talks<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">evaluate the extent to which <\/span><b>treaty <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">talks<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">worked toward justice, equality, and liberty<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">compare different ways of interpreting primary sources<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9342\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9342\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Topical\/Time Period Focus<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9342\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9342\"><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This exercise directly relates to:<\/span><\/i><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Land Purchases from American Indian Nations (1795-1830s)<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9343\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9343\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Illinois Learning Standards<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9343\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9343\"><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Inquiry<\/span><\/i><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SS.9-12.IS.3.Develop new supporting and essential questions by primary and secondary investigation, collaboration, and use of sources that<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">reflect diverse perspectives (e.g., political, cultural, socioeconomic, race, religious, gender).<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SS.9-12.IS.5. Gather and evaluate information from multiple primary and secondary sources that reflect the perspectives and experiences of multiple groups, including marginalized groups.<\/span><\/li><\/ul><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Civics<\/span><\/i><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SS.9-12.CV.3. Analyze constitutions, laws, and agreements to determine the degree to which they achieve justice, equality, and liberty.\u00a0<\/span><\/li><\/ul><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">History<\/span><\/i><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SS.9-12.H.3. Evaluate the methods used to promote change and the effects and outcomes of these methods on diverse groups of people.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SS.9-12.H.9\u00a0 Analyze the relationship between historical sources and the secondary interpretations made from them.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SS.9-12.H.10. Identify and analyze ways in which marginalized communities are represented in historical sources and seek out sources created by historically oppressed peoples.\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SS.9-12.H.11. Analyze primary and secondary historical sources from multiple vantage points and perspectives to identify and explain dominant narratives and counternarratives of historical events.\u00a0<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9344\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"4\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9344\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Vocabulary<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9344\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"4\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9344\"><table><tbody><tr><td><p><b>Vocabulary\u00a0<\/b><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>pronunciation<\/b><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>Definition<\/b><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">capitalism (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>ka<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7puh\u00b7tuh\u00b7li\u00b7zm<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">in <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">capitalist economies<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, certain private individuals and businesses control the processes for making and selling goods to ensure their own profit while other groups of people are expected to be laborers and consumers; trends in supply and demand set prices and availability of goods\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">in <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">settler capitalism <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">specifically, <\/span><b>settlers <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">take collectively held <\/span><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> lands and impose a system of private property; <\/span><b>settlers<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> control the rules of owning, keeping, and selling property to ensure their own benefit while <\/span><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> people and other marginalized communities are expected to be laborers and consumers\u00a0<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">cede (v.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>seed<\/b><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">give up; within the context of treaties, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ceded <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">lands are those exchanged for good and services, while <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">unceded <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">lands are lands that were never given up<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">colonialism (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">kuh\u00b7<\/span><b>low<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7nee\u00b7uh\u00b7li\u00b7zm<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">when one group of people invades another group of people, steals their natural resources, and controls their politics, social life, and economics<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">inanimate (adj.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ih\u00b7<\/span><b>na<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7nuh\u00b7muht<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">not alive<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">inherent (adj.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ihn\u00b7<\/span><b>heh<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7ruhnt<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">an essential characteristic that belongs to a person, living being, group, etc. on their own (not because of outside forces; just because it is there and theirs)<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Myaamia(ki) (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">me\u00b7<\/span><b>yah<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7me\u00b7<\/span><b>yah<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7key<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">an Indigenous nation whose homelands include the present-day states of Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, lower Michigan, and lower Wisconsin. The Myaamiaki are relatives of the tribes within the Illinois Confederation, particularly the Wea. Myaamiaki is the plural version of the word, but you may also see the singular, Myaamia, in the module.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">myth (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>mith<\/b><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">a commonly believed story that is not actually true<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">negotiator (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">nuh\u00b7<\/span><b>gow<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7shee\u00b7ay\u00b7tor<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">someone who tries to reach an agreement between two or more people or groups; each group can have its own negotiator (the negotiator advocates for what they want) or negotiators can be third parties (helping the groups agree without any interests of their own)<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">reciprocal (adj.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ruh\u00b7<\/span><b>si<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7pruh\u00b7kl<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">a balance of giving in a relationship; giving may not look the same for each side, but there is a shared commitment to offering and receiving<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">relationships (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">reh\u00b7<\/span><b>lay<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7shuhn\u00b7shihps<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">a connection between two or more people, living beings, groups, places, ideas, etc.; people who are in relationships have certain commitments to those they\u2019re in relationship with\u00a0<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">removed (v. or adj.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ruh\u00b7<\/span><b>moovd<\/b><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">taken away; in the context of Native history, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">removed <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">often refers to Native peoples who were forced to leave their homelands<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">responsibility (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">rih\u00b7spaan\u00b7suh\u00b7<\/span><b>bi<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7luh\u00b7tee<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">a commitment or obligation to do something<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">settlers v. Indigenous people (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>seh<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7tuh\u00b7lrz \/\/ ihn\u00b7<\/span><b>di<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7juh\u00b7nuhs <\/span><b>pee<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7pl<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Indigenous peoples\u2019 origin stories connect them to a place since before human memory; settlers arrive in a place to set up their own societies (even though other people already live there)<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Note that Native and Indigenous mean similar things. You will see them used to mean the same thing in this exercise.\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">sovereign (adj.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>saa<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7vr\u00b7uhn<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">sovereign <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">refers to having <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">sovereignty<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which is the authority of a political community to govern itself and engage in agreements with other government<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">tactics (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>tak<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7tihks<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">verbal or physical actions to meet a certain goal<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">time immemorial (adj.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>time <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ih\u00b7meh\u00b7<\/span><b>moh<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7ree\u00b7ehl<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">a time earlier than human memory, or the beginning of time<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">treaty (n.)<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><b>tree<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7tee<\/span><\/p><\/td><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">a formal, binding, and permanent agreement between two or more national governments\u00a0<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9345\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"5\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9345\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Background<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9345\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"5\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9345\"><h4><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Land and Relationality<\/span><\/i><\/h4><p><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> creation or origin stories link Native peoples to their lands and waters. The stories provide deep context for each nation\u2019s origins. They teach about each nation\u2019s <\/span><b>relationships<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> with and <\/span><b>responsibilities<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to their lands and waters. They are an important source that tells us about a people\u2019s history since <\/span><b>time immemorial. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Many <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">creation or origin stories recognize humans as dependent on lands, waters, plants, and animals for their survival. Rather than seeing humans as better than plants and animals, they see all living beings as <\/span><b>interdependent<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. This is why so many creation or origin stories show humans making mistakes and needing to learn from other living beings. The stories teach humans values around listening to, observing, and otherwise learning from the world around us.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> values for land include <\/span><b>reciprocal relationships<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Indigenous peoples\u2019 languages, religions or spiritual teachings, technologies, medicines, and foods come from their relationships with certain lands. This means that for <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">people, lands can\u2019t be exchanged. <\/span><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> peoples maintain deep relationships with their homelands, whether they live there now or not.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Traditional <\/span><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> laws prioritize the health and well-being of humans, lands, waters, animals, and plants. Indigenous people have been caring for the land since <\/span><b>time immemorial<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. They see the value of the land as <\/span><b>inherent<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: all life has value just for being alive. They also recognize that lands, waters, plants, and animals have their own rights, perspectives, and desires. In contrast, settler laws value land based on the presence of resources that can meet human wants. Settler systems see the land as <\/span><b>inanimate<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which means it cannot have its own perspectives or desires.<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><table><tbody><tr><td><p><b><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1541 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"227\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png 300w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-1024x774.png 1024w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-768x580.png 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background.png 1048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>Breaking down myths! <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the movie <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Pocahontas<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, the main character can speak to plants and animals. This is a <\/span><b>stereotype<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of Native people. Movies, TV shows, and other media often present Native people as very spiritual or in touch with the land.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Traditional <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">laws do talk about the <\/span><b>interdependence <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of people, lands, waters, plants, and animals. These important lessons tell <\/span><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> people how to live, including understanding their responsibilities to the land. Many <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">people are looking to these lessons as a way to prepare for and respond to climate change.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The <\/span><b>stereotype <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">of the \u201cecological Indian\u201d oversimplifies Indigenous morals, values, laws, and teachings. The <\/span><b>stereotype<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> comes from early scientific racism that said Native people were a primitive form of humans that had not yet become industrial. When people believe\u00a0 <\/span><b>stereotypes<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, they can end up making fun of Indigenous people. They can also undermine <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">rights to take care of the land. It\u2019s possible to hurt Native people through words and actions, even when people who believe the <\/span><b>stereotype<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> think they\u2019re \u201chonoring\u201d Native people.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Instead of the <\/span><b>stereotype<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, we can recognize that <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ways of listening to and learning from the land come from generations of land-based observation. We can examine the impact of <\/span><b>Indigenous science <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">on local ecosystems. And we can see how <\/span><b>Indigenous science <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">has shaped <\/span><b>sustainable <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">ways of living for thousands of years.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You can learn more about this from Colville scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker in <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pbssocal.org\/shows\/tending-the-wild\/the-problem-with-the-ecological-indian-stereotype\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">this essay<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">people, caring for the land does not mean leaving the land unchanged or untouched (this is a <\/span><b>myth<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). Instead, <\/span><b>Indigenous<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> people have managed their lands through Indigenous sciences. Indigenous sciences are based on knowledge developed over generations about one area. <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">people have worked <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">with<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the land to create new technologies for housing, education, food production, defense, healthcare, and the arts. One example of this is using controlled burns to manage ecosystems and increase species diversity.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Within <\/span><b>Indigenous <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">economies, changes to the land needed to promote collective long term health. This applied to the land and all the living beings that rely on it. Plants, animals, waters, and lands will continue to be healthy and take care of humans if humans take care of them. In contrast, for <\/span><b>settler<\/b> <b>capitalism<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, changes to the land needed to create a financial benefit. This could mean increasing the production or consumption of goods for humans. This has unfortunately negatively impacted the health of the land. It has also interrupted Native peoples\u2019 ability to maintain their relationships with their lands and waters. We see this in the rerouting of the Chicago river and the draining of regional marshes to build the city.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It is a <\/span><b>myth<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that Indigenous people lacked boundaries before <\/span><b>colonialism<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Indigenous people had long-standing ways of recognizing territorial boundaries between Native nations for governing, hunting, farming, and other needs. The <\/span><b>treaties <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">that outlined how Native nations shared or divided space were not one-time papers. Instead, these <\/span><b>treaties<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> were rules for <\/span><b>relationships <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">that needed to be renewed on a regular basis. This helped to make sure that the agreements still met everyone\u2019s needs and that everyone knew what they were agreeing to. For Indigenous people before colonization, treaty-making was a way of ensuring sustainable, healthy, peaceful coexistence through relationships and respect.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Settlers handled legal agreements and <\/span><b>diplomacy<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> differently. Americans inherited ideas from European legal traditions that prioritized individually held property. This property could be owned, transferred, and modified. These could be one-time agreements, purchases, or transfers and did not require relationships beyond the single transaction. Even though settlers were newcomers on Indigenous lands, they chose to import their existing ideas about land. They chose not to recognize Indigenous laws as valid.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Settlers saw lands as able to be exchanged based on financial value, but Indigenous people did not see lands as interchangeable. The difference in these two approaches meant that Indigenous people and Europeans\/Americans did not have the same expectations going into treaty talks. For example, Native nations had long made agreements about land use between themselves. These agreements did not mean a permanent loss of land, but rather clear expectations about who would use the land, when, and in what ways. On the contrary, settlers saw the <\/span><b>treaties <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">as permanent land transfers that would keep Native people out of the <\/span><b>ceded <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">lands. This difference in expectations led to more conflicts.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">American leaders who wanted Indigenous land in the Midwest believed that it was \u201cdestined\u201d for the United States to expand West. They thought that Native people did not deserve the land they had because they were not Christian. American leaders believed that these lands had been given to the United States by God. This would later be called \u201cmanifest destiny.\u201d These beliefs influenced the <\/span><b>tactics<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that US officials used to secure land upon entering into treaty talks.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In <\/span><b>treaty <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">negotiations, U.S. negotiators worked aggressively to get the signatures they needed. They often used lies, threats, fraud, and alcohol to get Indigenous people to sign agreements. Sometimes, they presented the agreement as more beneficial to Native people than it actually was. This meant that Native nations did not always have good information about what they were signing.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Other times, if U.S. officials could not get the signatures they wanted, the U.S. picked <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">who<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> would sign. They found Native people who would sign and claimed they were the correct person to do so. This could be a person from the same community or even from another nation! <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For example, few (if any) Neshnab\u00e9k representatives from around Chicago attended the 1795 Treaty of Greenville negotiations. Instead, the land was ceded by Neshnab\u00e9k from other regions, and by other tribes who ceded their claims to the land. Since Chicago had multiple overlapping land claims, these other communities recognized that they did not hold the sole right to cede this land. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Even so, the <\/span><b>treaty<\/b> <b>ceded<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> six-square miles of their land around the mouth of the Chicago River. After the <\/span><b>treaty<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> was signed, Neshnab\u00e9 leaders from Chicago protested it. They argued that since none of them were present for the negotiations, they didn\u2019t give permission to <\/span><b>cede <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the land.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In other cases, U.S officials called negotiations <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">when<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Native communities would be more likely to agree. They specifically chose times when Native people were vulnerable or in need of support, such as after the end of a military conflict. For example, Native communities in the Chicago area needed supplies after the War of 1812. The fur trade had begun to drive away animals, and people were hungry. U.S. officials knew this and started planning for the Treaty of St. Louis. By the time they gathered communities together in 1816, the Neshnab\u00e9k from the Chicago area were hungry and low on supplies. Illinois governor Ninian Edwards wanted a canal built between Chicago and Des Plaines Rivers He told Indigenous leaders that the canal would help them. To encourage them to sign, the treaty promised the Neshnab\u00e9k $1,000 worth of goods annually (about $22,000 annually in 2024 dollars). Even though Neshnab\u00e9 leaders had doubts about the canal, they desperately needed funds to buy supplies for their communities. They signed the <\/span><b>treaty.<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">U.S officials also carefully chose <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">where<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> they brought tribal leaders together. For example, the 1816 treaty took place in St. Louis and the 1829 treaty took place in Prairie du Chien. Even though the <\/span><b>treaties<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> were about lands in Chicago, both of these negotiation locations are hundreds of miles away. Similarly, U.S. negotiators chose Chicago for the 1821 treaty about lands in present-day Michigan because it was far away. Since treaty talks typically occurred over several weeks, entire communities traveled to attend them. Holding negotiations away from the lands to be <\/span><b>ceded<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> exhausted the resources of Native communities that traveled for these talks. It is estimated that at least 8,000 Neshnab\u00e9 attended the 1833 Treaty of Chicago \u2013 you can imagine the resources needed for that many people to travel and stay for several weeks!<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">U.S. officials also<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> used threats<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to make Native leaders attend <\/span><b>treaty<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> talks and <\/span><b>cede<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> land. The 1832 Black Hawk War (discussed further in Module 4) was about Sauk leader Black Hawk defending his community and their access to their homelands. The war ended with American militia massacring Sauk and Meskwaki people. American officials argued that the war proved that all Native people were violent and had to be <\/span><b>removed<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from their homelands. Not all Native people fought against the Americans during the war: some Neshnab\u00e9 people helped the Americans as scouts and go-betweens, while others were detained in Chicago to keep them from getting involved. Even so, U.S. Treaty Commissioners later threatened that if the Neshnab\u00e9k did not give up their homelands, they might experience violence like Black Hawk\u2019s community did.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Treaty-making was supposed to set firm borders for where Euro-Americans would settle, but <\/span><b>settlers<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> regularly ignored <\/span><b>treaty<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> boundaries. More <\/span><b>settlers <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">meant more conflict and fewer available resources, which pressured Native nations to <\/span><b>cede<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> more land. Many Native leaders signed treaties because they believed that peace might be found in the lands that the <\/span><b>treaties<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> promised. In the <\/span><b>treaty <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">talks, Americans promised to permanently set aside lands for Native people where they would have enough food and be free from arriving <\/span><b>settlers<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Native leaders who accepted this trade believed it offered the best possible futures for future generations of their people. This demonstrates how Native leaders had to make difficult decisions during treaty talks. They had to take care of their communities at the time, and they also had to think about the needs of future generations. In spite of being forced to leave, Indigenous people who were <\/span><b>removed <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">have never given up their relationships with their homelands.<\/span><\/p><h6>\u00a0<\/h6><h6><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Sources:\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/h6><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Arvin, Maile, Eve Tuck, and Angie Morrill, \u201cDecolonizing Feminism: Challenging Connections between Settler Colonialism and Heteropatriarchy,\u201d <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Feminist Formations<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> 25, no. 1 (2013): 8\u201334.<\/span><\/h6><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Benton, Lauren and Benjamin Straumann, &#8220;Acquiring Empire by Law: From Roman Doctrine to Early Modern European Practice.&#8221; <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Law and History Review. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">28 (1). (February 2010): 1\u201338.<\/span><\/h6><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Bowes, John P. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Land Too Good for Indians: Northern Indian Removal. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016).\u00a0<\/span><\/h6><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kimmerer, Robin Wall. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 2015).\u00a0<\/span><\/h6><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Low, John. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Imprints: The Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians and the City of Chicago. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2016).\u00a0<\/span><\/h6><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Simpson, Leanne Betasamosake. \u201cLooking after Gdoo-Naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships.\u201d <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Wicaso Sa Review<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> 23, no. 2 (2008): 29\u201342.<\/span><\/h6><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Wilkins, David E. and Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">American Indian Politics and the American Political System. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">4th ed. (Lanham, MA: Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers, 2017).\u00a0<\/span><\/h6><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9346\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"6\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9346\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Steps<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9346\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"6\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9346\"><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft wp-image-1541\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"113\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png 300w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-1024x774.png 1024w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-768x580.png 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background.png 1048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><strong>Note to teachers<\/strong>: We invite you to use the components of the Indigenous Chicago curriculum that best align with the needs of your classroom. The following suggested steps can be modified as needed, and we invite you to use the teacher\u2019s history brief to inspire new exercises that best meet the needs of your students. Please note that we suggest shortening, rather than modifying, the language of historical sources to best reflect the original source\u2019s context, intention, and voice.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><table><tbody><tr><td><p><b>Note: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You might want to use one of the following resources as you work through the sources below:<\/span><\/p><ul><li style=\"list-style-type: none;\"><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the National Archives\u2019 <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.archives.gov\/files\/education\/lessons\/document-analysis\/english\/analyze-a-written-document-intermediate.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0\u201cAnalyzing a Written Document\u201d<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> guide\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the virtual exhibit <\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/treatiesmatter.org\/exhibit\/welcome\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why Treaties Matter<\/span><\/i><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, developed by the Minnesota Humanities Center, Minnesota Indian Affairs Council, and the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, as well as their<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/treatiesmatter.org\/exhibit\/educator\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> educator guides\u00a0<\/span><\/a><\/li><li aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian\u2019s Native Knowledge 360\u00b0 unit <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/americanindian.si.edu\/nk360\/plains-treaties\/#title\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cIs a Treaty Intended to be Forever?\u201d<\/span><\/a><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">1. Review the information in the Background section above. What were the different cultural and political perspectives on land that Indigenous people and settlers held?<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Anticipate how these different perspectives might impact any agreements between Indigenous people and settlers about land.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">2. This exercise will investigate the negotiation tactics, treaty talk experiences, and outcomes of treaty talks in the Chicago area from 1795 to 1833. To prepare for the primary sources you\u2019re about to look at, create a chart like the one below (adapted from Nokes, 2022, p. 130):<\/span><\/p><table><tbody><tr><td><b>Source number<\/b><\/td><td><b>What should I know about the source and its maker? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(HIPP: historical context, intended audience, purpose, perspective\/point of view)<\/span><\/td><td><b>What does the source tell me? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(summary)<\/span><\/td><td><b>How does the source compare to the information in other sources?<\/b><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">3. Let\u2019s read Source 1, an excerpt from Charles Joseph LaTrobe\u2019s travel journal (printed at the end of this document). This section talks about getting ready for the 1833 Treaty of Chicago.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><ul><li style=\"list-style-type: none;\"><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In LaTrobe\u2019s description, what did US negotiators tell Indigenous people they had heard about Indigenous people and the land?<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How did Indigenous leaders respond to the US claim?<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When the US forced negotiations anyway, how did Indigenous leaders slow down the proceedings?<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How does this exchange reflect the different perspectives Indigenous people and settlers have\/had about land? (Think back to SQ1 and the Background section above.)<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">4. Create a two-column notes page to start documenting what treaty talks were like. Remember that for the early treaties, Native people still had the stronger hand for negotiating. By the later treaties, power dynamics in the region had changed.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You might set it up your notes like this:\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p><table><tbody><tr><th style=\"width: 500px;\">Questions<\/th><th style=\"width: 500px;\">Notes<\/th><\/tr><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Who attended treaty negotiations?\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Where did treaty negotiations occur?\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When did treaty negotiations occur?\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What did Native people want out of the treaty negotiations?<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What did settlers want out of the treaty negotiations?<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What <\/span><b>tactics<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> did the United States use? How did they try to make Native leaders agree to their demands?\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What <\/span><b>tactics<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> did Native leaders use to resist United States pressures? How did they advocate for continued access to their homelands?\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How was treaty language established?\u00a0<\/span><\/p><\/td><td>\u00a0<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Feel free to look back at the Background Section above to help fill this in!<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">5. Now, let\u2019s look at Source 2, four versions of<\/span><b> Myaamia<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> negotiator Little Turtle\u2019s speech in the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/aacimotaatiiyankwi.org\/2021\/04\/13\/four-versions-of-a-little-turtle-speech-at-greenville-1795\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Aacimotaatiiyankwi <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">blog post<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (pronounced aw\u00b7chi\u00b7moh\u00b7taw\u00b7<\/span><b>tea<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7yan\u00b7gwi), also printed at the end of this document. The post tells us important information about treaties, it also reveals how historians read and debate primary source material.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">We\u2019ll start with how historians do what they do. After reading the source,\u00a0<\/span><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What do you notice about the information the scholars use?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Where do scholars\u2019 knowledge about language and translation shape their interpretation of the sources? Their knowledge of cultural context? Their knowledge of family relationships?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How are these approaches helpful in understanding the motivations and outcomes of historical events?<\/span><\/li><\/ul><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">6. Now, let\u2019s zoom in on the content of Little Turtle\u2019s speech. Read the speech again. This time, notice:<\/span><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How does Little Turtle protest the treatment of <\/span><b>Myaamia<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> people by the United States negotiators?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Where does Little Turtle insist on <\/span><b>Myaamia<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> rights to their lands? How does this reflect Indigenous relationships with land?<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Where in his speech do you notice the United States pitting Native nations against one another?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><\/ul><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Add these insights to your growing list of answers in your chart above!<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">7. So far, you\u2019ve looked at two <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">primary<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> sources, and you\u2019ve also thought about how historians analyze primary sources. Now, let\u2019s look at a <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">secondary<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> source. Source 3 (printed at the end of this document) is two excerpts from the book <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Muddy Ground<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> by historian John William Nelson. Nelson\u2019s interpretation of the history helps us understand settler and Indigenous <\/span><b>tactics<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> for treaty talks. As you read, add to your chart above!<\/span><\/p><ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What <\/span><b>tactics<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> did each negotiating party use?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How did Anishinaabeg leaders protest the results of prior talks?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How did Indigenous leaders advocate for their communities during treaty negotiations?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to Nelson, in what ways were Native nations successful in maintaining access to the land homelands?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Did the United States\u2019 <\/span><b>tactics<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> lead Indigenous people to collaborate with one another? To fight against one another? In what ways<\/span><\/li><\/ul><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">8. Summing it up! How would you now describe treaty negotiations for Chicago between 1795 and 1833? Would you say these talks led to justice, equality, and liberty for all involved? Describe your findings in a format of your choosing \u2013 a paragraph, poem, art piece with an explanatory statement, etc.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">9. Looking forward, what additional questions would you want to answer to more fully understand treaty talk experiences?<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><table><tbody><tr><td><p><b><i><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1541 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"450\" height=\"340\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png 300w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-1024x774.png 1024w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-768x580.png 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background.png 1048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/>For Teachers! <\/i><\/b><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some examples of additional questions students could ask include:<\/span><\/i><\/p><ul><li><b>Who attended treaty negotiations? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How many people were present? Who spoke on behalf of Native nations? Who spoke on behalf of the United States?<\/span><\/li><li aria-level=\"1\"><b>Where did treaty negotiations occur? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Were the treaties that shaped the Chicago region held mostly close to Chicago? What kinds of buildings or grounds were used to host people?<\/span><\/li><li aria-level=\"1\"><b>When did treaty negotiations occur? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What kinds of events often precipitated treaty talks? Who got to call for talks to occur?<\/span><\/li><li aria-level=\"1\"><b>What tactics did the United States use to get Native leaders to agree to their demands? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What forms of pressure did the United States use?<\/span><\/li><li aria-level=\"1\"><b>What tactics did Native leaders use to resist United States pressures and to advocate for their continued access to their homelands? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How did Native leaders, even under duress, delay or subvert treaty talks? What asks did they make that ended up in treaty language?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><li aria-level=\"1\"><b>How was treaty language established? <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Who drafted the treaty language? In which language(s) did treaties get drafted?\u00a0<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9347\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"7\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9347\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Source 1: Excerpt from volume 2 of The rambler in North America, an 1836 travel journal from Charles Joseph LaTrobe<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9347\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"7\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9347\"><p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-1257 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Charles-LaTrobe-227x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"227\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Charles-LaTrobe-227x300.png 227w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Charles-LaTrobe.png 299w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 227px) 100vw, 227px\" \/><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Charles LaTrobe was a British politician who served as the first lieutenant governor of the British colony Victoria in Australia. Before getting involved in politics, LaTrobe traveled across North America with American author Washington Irving. He wrote <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Rambler in North America <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">about his travels. In this excerpt, LaTrobe describes the opening of the treaty talks for the 1833 Treaty of Chicago.<\/span><\/p><table><tbody><tr><td><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft wp-image-1541\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"275\" height=\"208\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png 300w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-1024x774.png 1024w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-768x580.png 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background.png 1048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 275px) 100vw, 275px\" \/><strong>Note to Teachers<\/strong>: While this volume of <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Rambler <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">is available in full <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/catalog.hathitrust.org\/Record\/002374606\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">online<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, please note that we do <\/span><b>not<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> encourage you to use a longer excerpt of this source. We have selected the following excerpt to avoid LaTrobe\u2019s use of stereotypical and damaging language about Indigenous people. If you decide to use the source in full and include sections that reference alcohol, help students notice LaTrobe\u2019s documentation that the United States supplied alcohol to coerce Indigenous negotiators to give into United States demands. As an observer, LaTrobe found the process to be unfair and concluded, \u201cWho will believe that any act, however formally executed by the chiefs, is valid, as long as it is known that whiskey was one of the parties to the Treaty\u201d (vol. 2, p. 212).\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Stereotypes about Native people being addicted to alcohol unfairly and inaccurately depict Indigenous people today. It is important to prepare students to address those stereotypes if they come up in class. Before colonization, some Native nations did make fermented drinks, but these were almost entirely for ceremonial or spiritual activities. While some made weak beer for social purposes, scholars do not believe Native people had strong social practices of extreme drinking. Instead, strong liquor and extreme social drinking were introduced through colonization. U.S. treaty negotiators frequently used alcohol to try to make Native treaty negotiators more likely to agree to their terms, and traders often introduced it to Native people because settlers could make alcohol as a relatively cheap item to trade. These colonial practices did lead to problems with alcohol consumption among Native people, which were exacerbated by other government policies. Today, Native people have created a number of programs within their communities to address substance abuse and help their community members heal. While problems with alcohol use among Native communities persist today, data from the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohols-effects-health\/alcohol-topics\/alcohol-facts-and-statistics\/alcohol-use-disorder-aud-united-states-age-groups-and-demographic-characteristics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">National Institutes of Health<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> show that Native people do not experience alcohol use disorders significantly more than other races and ethnicities: among people older than 12, 11.6% of American Indian and Alaska Native people suffered an alcohol use disorder in 2023 (156,000 people), as compared to 13.6% of biracial people (841,000), 11% of white people (18.7 million), 10.8% of Hispanic or Latino people (4.8 million), 9.6% of Black or African American people (3.3 million), 7.9% of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander people (88,000), and 5.7% of Asian people (994,000).\u00a0<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">THE INDIAN TREATY. A preliminary council had been held with the chiefs some days before our arrival. The principal Commissioner had opened it, as we learnt, by stating that, \u2018as their Great Father in Washington had heard that they wished to sell the land, he had sent Commissioners to treat with them.\u2019 The Indians promptly answered by their organ, \u2018that their Great Father in Washington must have seen a bad bird which had told him a lie, for that. far from wishing to sell their land, they wished to keep it.\u2019 The Commissioner, nothing daunted, replied : \u2018that nevertheless, as they had come together for a Council, they must take the matter into consideration.\u2019 He then explained to them promptly the wishes and intentions of their Great Father, and asked their opinion thereon. Thus pressed, they looked at the sky, saw a few wandering clouds, and straightway adjourned <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">sine die<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, as the weather is not clear enough for so solemn a council. (p. 203-204)<\/span><\/p><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Source citation: Charles LaTrobe, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Rambler in North America: MDCCCXXXII-MDCCCXXXIII. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(London: R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside, 1835), Newberry Library: 203-204.<\/span><\/h6><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9348\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"8\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9348\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Source 2: Four Versions of a Little Turtle Speech at Greenville, 1795, a post from the Myaamia-run blog Aacimotaatiiyankwi<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9348\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"8\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9348\"><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The blog post is accessible in full <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/aacimotaatiiyankwi.org\/2021\/04\/13\/four-versions-of-a-little-turtle-speech-at-greenville-1795\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here.<\/span><\/a><\/p><figure id=\"attachment_1259\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1259\" style=\"width: 221px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1259\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Mihsihkinaahkwa-221x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"221\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Mihsihkinaahkwa-221x300.png 221w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Mihsihkinaahkwa.png 590w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 221px) 100vw, 221px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1259\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa by Julie Olds (Myaamia), 2019<\/figcaption><\/figure><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa (pronounced mish\u00b7eh\u00b7kin\u00b7<\/span><b>aw<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7kwa, or Little Turtle in English) was a <\/span><b>Myaamia<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> leader born around 1747. He rose to leadership through his Myaamia military service and fought in several battles against the United States. Over time, Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa became concerned about the growing violence. He was concerned for his people, including his son-in-law, Eepiihkaanita (ay\u00b7pea\u00b7<\/span><b>con<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00b7it\u00b7a, also known as William Wells), who served as a scout for the U.S. Army. Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa came to believe that peace with the United States was the best option for his community. He and Eepiihkaanita worked together toward peace on several occasions, including at the 1795 Treaty of Greenville. Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa died in 1812.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Source citation: George Ironstrack, Hunter Lockwood, David Costa, Daryl Baldwin, and Cameron Shriver. \u201cFour Versions of a Little Turtle Speech at Greenville, 1795.\u201d <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Aacimotaatiiyankwi, <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">aacimotaatiiyankwi.org.\u00a0<\/span><\/h6><table><tbody><tr><td><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1541 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"227\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-300x227.png 300w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-1024x774.png 1024w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background-768x580.png 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Del-Real_Small-Motif-no-background.png 1048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><strong>Note to teachers:<\/strong> If you need a shorter excerpt, we suggest including the sentences we have temporarily bolded below. Whether you use the excerpt or the whole source, we suggest you remove the bolding before assigning this text.\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are also two ways to read this text. You could just have the students analyze the four included sources if you\u2019re working more on primary source analysis skills. If you\u2019re also teaching students about how historians do what they do, you can read the conversation at the end as well.\u00a0 You can have the students read the scholars\u2019 conversation aloud to get a sense of how historians engage in discussions to interpret historical manuscripts! While we have suggested some excerpts with the bolding of the conversation, you might choose otherwise depending on your goals with your students.\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h2><b>Four Versions of a Little Turtle Speech at Greenville, 1795<\/b><\/h2><h3><b>*and a conversation about them<\/b><\/h3><h5><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Posted by <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">CAMSHRIVER<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> on <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">APRIL 13, 2021<\/span><\/h5><p><b>The following four primary sources all reveal aspects of a critical message delivered by the Myaamia leader Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa \u2018Little Turtle\u2019 during the summer of 1795 at negotiations in Greenville in the Ohio territory. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For the context, see our previous two blog posts about the Treaty of Greenville (<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/aacimotaatiiyankwi.org\/2016\/10\/03\/the-treaty-of-greenville-1795-part-1\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Part One<\/span><\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">and<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/aacimotaatiiyankwi.org\/2021\/03\/01\/the-treaty-of-greenville-1795-part-ii\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Part Two<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">). <\/span><b>In March 2021, some staff at the Myaamia Center got together virtually for a brown bag chat about these sources, resulting in a wide-ranging conversation reproduced below.\u00a0<\/b><\/p><p><b>The four sources are introduced here in no particular order, including their citation and a short explanation. The first three are extracted from longer, eyewitness reports of the 1795 negotiations, each detailing many more days of speeches and events. The last is a modern re-translation of Little Turtle\u2019s speech by the Miami speaker Gabriel Godfroy with interlinear translations by David Costa. All transcriptions are reproduced verbatim.<\/b><\/p><p><b>Following the sources is a lightly edited transcription of the brown bag conversation itself, which delved into the value of translations, the contexts of the speech, and historical concepts of boundaries and territorial dominion so critical to Miami and U.S. history.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Join the conversation below, or via Facebook or Twitter.<\/span><\/p><h2>\u00a0<\/h2><h3><b>The Four Sources<\/b><\/h3><p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-1260 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Myaamia-place-names-1024x768.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Myaamia-place-names-1024x768.png 1024w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Myaamia-place-names-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Myaamia-place-names-768x576.png 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Myaamia-place-names.png 1500w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/p><p>1. <b>\u201cDiary of surgeon John F. Carmichael, June-Dec. 1795.\u201d HM 827. The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA.<\/b><\/p><p><b><i>This version of the negotiations is my transcription of a manuscript that I saw at the Huntington Library in California some years ago. It was written by a medical surgeon present with the American army in Greenville.\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>In council<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>Tarhee, or Crane, a Wyandot Chf was preparing to speak, but was interrupted by<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>Chi-quee-naugh-qua\u2014<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>Little turtle a Miami<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>Elder Brother-<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">I thought yesterday there was a mistake, in the interpretation, or in the Chief who spoke\u2014for we ware surprised at his words;\u2013You shall now hear what I have to say on that subject-<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I have already told you, that neither I nor any of the Chiefs of my nation nation ware at Muskingum\u2014and we known nothing of the transfer of the lands\u2014<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>I do not understand our Elder Brothers the three fires\u2014when they say the country is theirs\u2014Open your ears and hear and I will tell, you whare you live, and, your boundries\u2014<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>The Maumee Villiges, and the River is mine\u2014the marks of my fore father\u2019s houses, are yet plain to be seen<\/i><\/b><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u2014The Pattawatomies live on the St. Joseph, and on the Wabash\u2014with the other Wabash <\/span><\/i><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">indians<\/span><\/i><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> tribes\u2014The Tau-was live \u2014<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Chip-pa-was-live on<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>Listen and I will tell you who has the right of soil\u2014<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>The Great Spirit first settled my forefathers, at Detroit\u2014and gave them all this country and told them never to part with there land<\/i><\/b><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">,\u2013And their boundary was, From thence to the head branches of the Sciota along the Sciota to the mouth from thence along the Ohio, to the mouth of the Wabash\u2014and from thence up the Wabash to its source\u2014from thence along a branch of\u00a0 \u00a0 to \u00a0 \u00a0 the southwest corner of lake \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 where we first saw our brothers the Shau-wa-noes these are our bounderies, and this is our land,\u2013<\/span><\/i><b><i>My fore fathers told me, not to sel our land, and we have never sold, it<\/i><\/b><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u2014<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Great Spirit, has not taken care of our elder brothers\u2014for they have always sold their land to any white man who wore a hat\u2014<\/span><\/i><\/p><figure id=\"attachment_1261\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1261\" style=\"width: 313px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1261 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Carmichaels-journal.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"313\" height=\"184\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Carmichaels-journal.jpg 313w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Carmichaels-journal-300x176.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 313px) 100vw, 313px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1261\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">In this image from John Carmichael\u2019s journal, he sketches a figure representing the Myaamia leader named Soldier.<\/figcaption><\/figure><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><b>2. American State Papers, Indian Affairs, vol. 1: 570-571.<\/b><\/p><p><b><i>This official report is the only source used in the secondary literature. It is the most complete and accessible of the sources. <\/i><\/b><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Interested readers can find it <\/span><\/i><a href=\"https:\/\/memory.loc.gov\/cgi-bin\/ampage?collId=llsp&amp;fileName=007\/llsp007.db&amp;recNum=4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here,<\/span><\/i><\/a><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> on page 570.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I wish to inform you where your younger brothers, the Miamies, live, and, also, the Pattawatamies of St. Joseph\u2019s, together with the Wabash Indians. You have pointed out to us the boundary line between the Indians and the united States, but I now take the liberty to inform you, that that line cuts off from the Indians a large portion of country, which has been enjoyed by my forefathers since time immemorial, without molestation or dispute. The print of my ancestors\u2019 houses are every where to be seen in this portion. I was a little astonished at hearing you, and my brothers who are now present, telling each other what business you had transacted together heretofore at Muskingum, concerning this country. It is well known by all my brothers present, that my forefather kindled the first fire at Detroit; from thence, he extended his lines to the head waters of Scioto; from thence, to its mouth; form thence, down the Ohio, to the mouth of the Wabash, and from thence to Chicago, on lake Michigan; at this place I first saw my elder brothers, the Shawanese. I have now informed you of the boundaries of the Miami nation, where the Great Spirit placed my forefather a long time ago, and charged him not to sell or part with his lands, but to preserve them for his posterity. This charge has been handed down to me.<\/i><\/b><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> I was much surprised to find that my other brothers differed so much from me on this subject: for their conduct would lead one to suppose, that the Great Spirit, and their forefathers, had not given them the same charge that was give to me, but, on the contrary, had directed them to sell their lands to any white man who wore a hat, as soon as he should ask it of them. <\/span><\/i><b><i>Now, elder brother, your younger brothers, the Miamies, have pointed out to you their country, and also to our brothers present. <\/i><\/b><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When I hear your remarks and proposals on this subject, I will be ready to give you an answer; I came with an expectation of hearing you say good things, but I have not yet heard what I have expected.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><b><i>3. \u201cReport to Colonel England on Mission to Greenville,\u201d Burton Historical Records, John Askin Papers (1928) 1: 564.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>This version, the briefest, comes from the British subject (born to an Ottawa mother) John Askin, Junior, in his intelligence reporting to Col. England. Askin, like many, was deeply interested in the negotiations because his trading prospects hinged on access to Indigenous markets and producers in the region.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><b><i>The Miamis spoke and said their Grand Father had given them these Lands and they were told not to sell them nor give them away and of Course the Tribes who had given them at Muskingum had no right to them, and several other words to the same purpose.<\/i><\/b><\/p><figure id=\"attachment_1262\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1262\" style=\"width: 234px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1262\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Jacob-Piatt-Dunn-and-Gabriel-Godfroy-234x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"234\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Jacob-Piatt-Dunn-and-Gabriel-Godfroy-234x300.jpg 234w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Jacob-Piatt-Dunn-and-Gabriel-Godfroy-800x1024.jpg 800w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Jacob-Piatt-Dunn-and-Gabriel-Godfroy-768x983.jpg 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Jacob-Piatt-Dunn-and-Gabriel-Godfroy.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 234px) 100vw, 234px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1262\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jacob Piatt Dunn<\/figcaption><\/figure><figure id=\"attachment_1263\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1263\" style=\"width: 271px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1263\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Gabriel-Godfroy-271x300.webp\" alt=\"\" width=\"271\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Gabriel-Godfroy-271x300.webp 271w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Gabriel-Godfroy-768x850.webp 768w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Gabriel-Godfroy.webp 925w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 271px) 100vw, 271px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1263\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gabriel Godfroy<\/figcaption><\/figure><p><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/p><p><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><b>4. Little Turtle\u2019s Speech, trans. by Gabriel Godfroy and David Costa<\/b>.<b> Jacob Piatt Dunn Collection, L047, Manuscripts Division, Indiana State Library.<\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa Kiiloohkweeta<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The English line (3) is taken verbatim from the published <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">American State Papers <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">official record of the speech. The Miami translation line (1) is from a retranslation from English back into Miami by Gabriel Godfroy, elicited by Jacob Dunn. The Miami has been fit to modern orthography by David Costa. The interlinear translation line (2) is provided by David Costa.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Iihseensa oolawi pisentawilo noonki iilwiaani.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">older brother (voc.) | \u2018I desire (pray)\u2019 | listen to me | now | I say\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I hope you will pay attention to what I now say to you.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kiwiintamoole kati ah\u0161iimaki Myaamiaki eehi wiiyaahkiwaaci,<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">I tell you | will | younger siblings | Miamis | where | they stay<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I wish to inform you where your younger brothers, the Miamis live,<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">aapoo\u0161i Wahoonaahaki (of the St. Joseph\u2019s), aapoo\u0161i Waapaah\u0161ikenki mihtohseeniaki.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">also | Potawatomis | also | Wabash (loc.) | Indians\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>and also the Potawatomis of St. Joseph\u2019s, together with the Wabash Indians.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kiila \u0161aaya meehci peemaahkonamani mihtohseeniaki meetaathsoopia.\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">you | already | you draw it as a boundary | Indians | government<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>You have pointed out to us the boundary line between the Indians and the United States,<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kiwiintamoole kati peemaahkonamani a\u0161iihkiwi wiihsa mihtohseeniaki keehkaawaaci,<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">I tell you | will | you draw it as a boundary | land | many | Indians | it cuts them off (?)<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>but now I take the liberty to inform you that that line cuts off from the Indians a large portion of country<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">noohsinaanaki eehi-pimiseniowaaci eehkwi ceeki aweeya kihkeelintamaani\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">our fathers | where | they live | while | everybody | he knows it<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>which has been enjoyed by my forefathers, time immemorial,\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">moohci ansihke aweeyaki nimiikaalikona nintepeelintantekohsiiwa*.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">not | never | someone (pl.) | he fights us (?) | he does not make claims against me (?)<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>without molestation or dispute.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Miisaahaki eehkwa peemhkawaaciki neeminki awiikawaanki oowaaha a\u0161iihkiwi<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">everywhere | still | traces | it is seen | their houses (loc.) | here | land<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>The print of my ancestor\u2019s houses are everywhere to be seen in this portion.\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Niila kikawe waaciinkwiiteehiaani eehpi\u0161i kiila weechsaamakiki oowaaha weeyaahkiciki noontamaani,<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">I | \u2018somewhat\u2019 | I worry | \u2018when\u2019 | you | my brothers (1 &gt; 33) | here | they dwell | I hear it<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I was a little astonished at hearing you, and my brothers who are now present,<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">aatotankwaatiiciki ii\u0161i\u0161iniyani milohta mihtami Muskingum ooniini a\u0161iihkiwi aatotameekwi.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">they talk about it to each other | what you do | before | first | Muskingum | this | land | you (pl.) talk about it<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>telling each other what business you had transacted together heretofore at Muskingum concerning this country.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ceeki kiihkeelintaminki weechsaamakiki weeyaahkiiciki kiintoohki pootaweeta noohsa Ee(h)kakamionki,<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">all | it is known | my brothers (1 &gt; 33) | they stay | \u2018first\u2019 | he builds a fire | my father | Detroit (loc.)<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>It is well known by all my brothers present, that my forefather kindled the first fire at Detroit,<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">niiyaanci kiikaapiikahank Scioto eehonci maaciihtanki,<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">from there | he draws a line on it | Scioto | from where | it flows out<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>from thence he extended his lines to the headwaters of Scioto from thence to its mouth<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">niiyaanci eehi saakiiweeki Kaanseeseepiiwi niiyaanci Waapaah\u0161iiki eehi saakiiweeki Kaanseeseepionki<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">from there | where | it joins, confluence | Ohio river | from there | Wabash river | where | it joins, confluence | Ohio river (loc.)<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>from thence, down the Ohio, to the mouth of the Wabash;<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">niiyaanci \u0161ikaakonki kihcikamionki.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">from there | Chicago (loc.) | sea (loc.)<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>from thence to Chicago, on lake Michigan.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Niiyaaha kiintoohki nihseensaki \u0161aawanooki neewakiki.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">there | first | my older brothers | Shawnees | I see them\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>at this place, I first saw my elder brothers the Shawnees.\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Noonki \u0161aaye meehci weentamoolaani eehi Myaamiaki teepeelintankiki eehi noohsina pooniaminci mii\u0161imaaha<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">now | already | after | I tell you | where | Miamis | they own it | where | our (excl.) father | he has us (excl.) | long ago\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I have now informed you of the boundaries of the Miami nation, where the Great Spirit placed my forefather a long time ago,<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cWiihkata ansihke ataaweehsoolo ooniini kita\u0161iihkiomi\u201d, ii\u0161ita noohsina, \u201ckiniicaanhsawa kati eelooweelintankiki\u201d.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">don\u2019t | never | do not sell it | this | your land | he says to me | our (excl.) father | your (pl.) children | will | \u2018they have the benefit of it\u2019<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>and charged him not to sell or part with his lands, but to preserve them for his posterity.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Niila ooniini poonamawinki<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">I | this | (it) is handed to me<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>This charge has been handed down to me.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Taani\u0161i toki ii\u0161iteehiaani moohci nimaamaantee\u0161iteehiminaan ooniini iilaatotaminki<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">how | I wonder | I think | not | we (excl.) think alike | this | it is spoken of thus<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I was much surprised to find that my other brothers differed so much from me on this subject:<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Malami ii\u0161ileniwaata aalaamhtoonci kati noohsina noohsinaanaki moohci naahpi wiintamawaaciki ii\u0161imenki.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">too | they do so | he is believed | will | our (excl.) father | our (excl.) fathers | not | also | they tell him | I am said\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">so to\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>for their conduct would lead one to suppose, that the Great Spirit, and their forefathers, had not given them the same charge that was given to me,\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kwitakinki\u0161i ii\u0161ileniciki ataaweeko ata\u0161iihkiomawe mihtami Mih\u0161imaalhsa kwicimolekoci<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">otherwise | he does thus | sell (imp.) | their land | first | white person | he (obv.) asks him<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>but on the contrary, had directed them to sell their lands to any white man who wore a hat, as soon as he should ask it of them.\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Iihseensa noonki wiintamoohkiki teepeelintamoowa* ah\u0161iimaki Myaamiaki\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">elder brother | now | they tell you | they govern it (?) | younger siblings | Miamis<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>Now, elder brothers, your younger brothers, the Miamis, have pointed out to you their country,\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">aapoo\u0161i ceeki weechsaamankwiki oowaaha weeyaahkiciki<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">also | all | our brothers (12 &gt; 33) | here | they stay<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>and also to our brothers present.\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Meehci kati noontoolaani kiwiintamoole<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">after | fut. | I hear you | I tell you\u00a0<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>When I hear your remarks and proposals on this subject, I will be ready to give you an answer.<\/i><\/b><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Oowaaha pyaayaani peehki ninoontawaa kati iileelimelaani moohci naahpa kinoontoohsoole.<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here | I come | good | I hear him | will | I think of you thus | not | but | I do not hear you<\/span><\/i><\/p><p><b><i>I came with an expectation of hearing you say good things, but I have not yet heard what I expected.<\/i><\/b><\/p><h2><b>A Conversation<\/b><\/h2><h4><b>Brown bag conversation, March 4, 2021.<\/b><\/h4><p><b>George Ironstrack: Gabriel Godfroy\u2019s version strikes me as a straight up translation from the English he was provided. We know there is a major language shift between Little Turtle\u2019s time (ca. 1795) and Gabriel Godfroy (ca. 1890). Not that Godfroy wouldn\u2019t have understood Little Turtle\u2019s speech, but I don\u2019t think it tells us a lot about the actual words Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa spoke on that day or the oratorical style he might have used for that circumstance. For the American State Papers version, we know that William Wells was the interpreter and so I tend to trust the interpretation at a pretty high degree on account of his level of fluency and relationship with Little Turtle, and we also see them working hand in glove politically, which helps me to trust the initial translation, at least.<\/b> <b>I\u2019m struck, when I go back and read it, by Little Turtle\u2019s definition of space<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, because nobody else from the tribes at that treaty attempts to define their space at all, much less defined it in a way that puts a roadblock in Anthony Wayne\u2019s plan for what\u2019s going to happen at the negotiation, and I don\u2019t think we have a lot of good examples from that period of Indigenous descriptions of homelands. <\/span><b>He\u2019s very much just describing it by outside borders, which strikes me as very culturally important in that moment, if you\u2019re trying to defend your territory by defining it.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> It\u2019s not very culturally resonant in the way territory\u2026 we can see in old [documents], the territory was defined by central cities, not by peripheries. I\u2019d be curious if folks have read others, especially in the language or in heavy [Algonquian] language context with good translations, where tribal leaders in the Great Lakes are defining the boundaries of their territories?<\/span><\/p><p><b>Hunter Lockwood: On the question of \u201care translators trustworthy?\u201d Sometimes absolutely, but sometimes never. And then this piece [Little Turtle\u2019s speech], one of the things I noticed about that boundary definition is that it\u2019s basically all using the rivers and watersheds.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> So one of the things I\u2019ve been thinking about also is:\u00a0 what sorts of things are hard to translate, and what sorts of things are relatively easier to translate in general?<\/span><b> In Algonquian languages, defining rivers and boundaries is not the most unnatural thing in the world and I could imagine reasons including contentious discussions over space in this shared territory [in the Great Lakes]. But when you get a really specific delineation of space according to colonial units, that\u2019s when things get murky. So, some of the later treaties have \u201csuch and such many miles\u201d and \u201csuch and such many subdivisions,\u201d and even today, with modern speakers of Ojibwe, for instance, speakers will not always talk about those things the same way.<\/b><\/p><p><b>David Costa:<\/b> <b>One thing Rich Rhodes talked about long ago, when I was a grad student, he said that one of the big salient differences between how territory was conceived of back then versus how white people conceived of it is white people came with a conception that rivers were boundaries. Whereas in North America, at least in the Great Lakes and Midwest, rivers were, that was the heart of territory, so conceiving of those as boundaries as Europeans were wont to do was a drastic change. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Because, as you know, that was how people got around. People would take huge detours to get from A to B by following rivers when, if you look at it, as the crow flies a direct line will be much shorter but also next to impossible to do.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Daryl Baldwin: Right, and I think that\u2019s a good point because, when we look at Little Turtle\u2019s words, we have to understand the context in which he\u2019s speaking and he\u2019s trying to speak in another language. I\u2019m saying that conceptually. He\u2019s speaking to someone who is trying to take his land<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, so you\u2019re right, I think that the notion of homeland is \u201cwhere I live,\u201d and that\u2019s probably the way it was thought of in the context of the language. We use \u2018Myaamionki\u2019 all the time, it\u2019s \u2018where the Miamis are at.\u2019 <\/span><b>The boundaries are probably heavily influenced because treaty negotiations are not about tribal epistemologies, but about American ideas of land ownership and boundaries. Little Turtle and the other leaders are having to figure out how to talk in those terms, and this might have been a good example of an early attempt for Little Turtle to speak in those terms.<\/b><\/p><p><b>David Costa: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Yeah, even though I think he did not speak English, it is actually an interesting big adaptation to European ways of thinking. It\u2019s already evident.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Cameron Shriver:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> In the John Carmichael version, I\u2019m struck by how similar it is to the American State Papers version. They almost fully agree, but there are some interesting details in the Carmichael version. \u201cOpen your ears and I will tell you where they live,\u201d he says. \u201cThe marks of my forefather\u2019s houses are yet plain to be seen. \u2026 The Potawatomis live on the St. Joseph and the Wabash, the Ottawas live at \u2018blank,\u2019 the Ojibwes live on \u2018blank,\u2019 and there are other place names that Carmichael apparently could not write down. Little Turtle is saying explicitly where the Ottawas and Ojibwes and Potawatomis live, and Carmichael just doesn\u2019t know what those words mean or Wells is not translating them from the Miami names. So he\u2019s kind of mixing a centered version\u2013maybe they live on this river or that river\u2013and then switching to describe the boundaries of the Miami Nation. That\u2019s interesting.<\/span><\/p><p><b>George Ironstrack: And the historical context here: there are three fraudulent treaties [Fort Harmar, Fort McIntosh, Fort Stanwix] that Little Turtle is essentially trying to knock out from underneath this negotiation. At those treaties [Wyandot leader Tarhe] is one of the people and some Ojibwe or other people who ceded our lands although we didn\u2019t attend those treaties, because we didn\u2019t see them as legitimate. So, when you enter that part of the negotiations, that context is really important.<\/b><\/p><p><b>Cameron Shriver: Yeah, there\u2019s a real tension because Mih\u0161ihkinaahkwa is kind of on an island in this treaty council, and increasingly so, as the only one who is willing to challenge Anthony Wayne. He is clearly trying to refute and say that those earlier treaties with the Ottawas and Ojibwes were void because key groups, Miamis and Shawnees, weren\u2019t there.<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Groups from Michigan are selling Southern Ohio and he\u2019s like \u201cnope, you live there, we live here\u201d and \u201cI\u2019m surprised you would sell that land to any white man who wears a hat,\u201d a phrase that appears in both versions. There must be something there.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><b>Hunter Lockwood:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Certain modern varieties connect that [hats] to Frenchmen. The hat is a trade good brought in for trade; that\u2019s how I learned it anyway. That\u2019s actually white people in general, \u201cone who wears a hat\u201d in some versions of Miami-Illinois.<\/span><\/p><p><b>George Ironstrack: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Yeah, the wearing of hats shows up all the way through the early nineteenth century, like the [Shawnee] Prophet talks about the wearing of hats is like a sign of white people but also selling out, and there\u2019s a hat in his vision and there\u2019s all these references to hats that go back in time. <\/span><b>But it\u2019s really interesting, and again, to me it is a huge violation of treaty protocol, [Little Turtle] is essentially name calling, is what\u2019s going on there. It just shows the tension; imagine the backroom tension. It very much feels like Andrew Cayton writes, that this is political theater. Imagine being there on the day as well as the following night when people around the campfire are talking about this after the fact, and planning what they\u2019re going to say the next day.<\/b><\/p><p><b>Cameron Shriver: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There\u2019s another context here, to what Wayne is saying. Wayne is arguing, \u201chey you Miamis, you sold your land to the French, the British conquered the French, and we conquered it from the British, and therefore we get that land fair and square.\u201d Wayne\u2019s saying \u201cyou have already sold your land, get off your high horse Little Turtle and admit that you are already colonized,\u201d and so I wonder if Turtle is using that \u201cwhite man who wears a hat\u201d to mean all settlers or colonists, French, British and Americans, versus the clear distinction between an American and a British and a French person.<\/span><\/p><p><b>David Costa:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> I just looked into my etymological dictionary under \u2018hat\u2019 and Gatschet learned \u201ceetehtolenia\u201d as \u2018someone who wears a hat.\u2019 Sarah Wadsworth evidently told Gatschet, \u201cthis was the first name given by Wea Indians to the white people.\u201d It\u2019s pretty impressive that Wadsworth was born in the 1850s would remember that.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><b>Cameron Shriver: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Godfroy does not use a hat term, it looks like he just says \u201cmihsi-maalhsa.\u201d (Long Knife). But he was reading the American State Papers version, or Dunn was reading it to him for translation.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Daryl Baldwin: This was stated earlier in our conversation, but I just want to reiterate that Godfroy\u2019s translation of the treaty speech is nothing more than his language interpretation, and so I\u2019ve never attempted to look at that as a representation, especially for cultural concepts that Little Turtle might have been trying to express.<\/b><\/p><p><b>David Costa:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Yeah, I agree. Though I do wonder whether Godfroy put something into his translation that\u2019s not immediately evident, that might not have been characteristic of his normal speech. You know, there was an oratorical style. There might have been some subtle things about how Godfroy translated this that might have been harking back to \u201cwell I kind of remember when I was a kid when people would make speeches.\u201d Maybe he tried to throw in a few old-fashioned turns of phrase into it, like [Thomas Wildcat] Alford did when he translated the Shawnee Bible.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Hunter Lockwood: I think that\u2019s true to a large extent. It\u2019s a linguistic exercise, but I think there\u2019s a value to it in that there is a broader perspective also. When we\u2019re looking at these old interpretations, which parts are really tricky to translate and which parts aren\u2019t? The strawman argument, maybe, says that this stuff is impossible to translate into languages that are so hopelessly different that there is no way to communicate between them. And so it\u2019s useful to say no, these are things that are translatable; that if Miami speakers speak English, they could say: \u201chere\u2019s how you would configure these descriptions of space.\u201d And also, \u201cthere are the concepts that are tricky.\u201d I think that is useful. Godfroy showed years later that these boundaries were relatively straightforward to translate.<\/b><\/p><p><b>George Ironstrack: And there are little things in there that, if we didn\u2019t know from outside sources, would help us like kinship terminology. Brother is actually \u2018elder brother,\u2019 and you know younger brother is actually \u2018younger siblings.\u2019 It opens up a little bit of a cultural door, so it\u2019s not useless in terms of understanding the speech in that way, but it gives us more questions to ask about the intercultural communication that was occurring at Greenville in 1795.<\/b><\/p><p><b>David Costa: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the version I [translated] I had to give both [the American State Papers] version and another translated version of what Godfroy is actually saying, because there are some places where [Godfroy\u2019s Miami] really departs from the English. There\u2019s actually a bad match between Dunn\u2019s translation and the Myaamia language itself, so Godfroy is applying some of his own intuitions to this. Whether or not there is some echo of the oratorical style that he might remember is tougher to say. It\u2019s definitely not just a \u2026 [word for word] translation.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Cameron Shriver: I think we all know that you can translate any idea across languages, but there\u2019s an outdated idea in the literature that Native people don\u2019t know what a boundary is or don\u2019t understand or have a notion of land ownership, and so there are a few ways that Godfroy relatively easily translates what could be an abstract idea, but it\u2019s not problematic for him. Like for boundary, he says, \u2018draw a line\u2019 and that\u2019s a boundary. OK, that\u2019s no problem. But then, when he describes the \u201cboundaries of the Miami nation, where the Great Spirit placed my forefather a long time ago,\u201d\u2013he just says \u2018Myaamiaki,\u2019 by the way, not \u2018Miami nation,\u2019 there\u2019s no \u201cnation\u201d term\u2013but rather he translates: \u201cI tell you where the Miamis, they own it, where our (exclusive) father, he has us (exclusive) long ago.\u201d <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">So, those exclusive ideas are, well, that\u2019s kind of what property is, that is what dominion is, it\u2019s something exclusive not inclusive. So the words he chooses to use for boundaries of the Miami nation are interesting to me as well.<\/span><\/p><p><b>George Ironstrack: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Who was it, was it Bundy that answered the question: how do you say nation? He just said \u201cceeki\u201d [\u2018all\/everything.\u2019]<\/span><\/p><p><b>Daryl Baldwin: I\u2019ve also long wondered about people, about where they\u2019re from as in their village, and that the extent of their domain largely hinged on how friendly they were. If they were friendly, they could get close, and if they weren\u2019t friendly you stayed farther away from them. I always felt like that ability to interact hinged on one\u2019s perception of another. Different tribes would have different degrees of association with different groups, so there was this middle gray space between villages that was constantly in ebb and flow and maybe even seasonally as summer villages broke into winter camps and so on and so forth. <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">And then you work in the whole notion of travel and my guess is that on a portage, people could get through fine, but you didn\u2019t venture off that portage into certain areas. I think it was a very complex social landscape that would have been guided by a lot of different human forces that didn\u2019t have clear distinct boundaries, and just like it is hard to describe what animate or inanimate [nouns] means, it\u2019s pretty hard to describe who belongs to a bounded geography.<\/span><\/p><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-9349\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"9\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-9349\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><svg class=\"e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-right\" viewBox=\"0 0 192 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M0 384.662V127.338c0-17.818 21.543-26.741 34.142-14.142l128.662 128.662c7.81 7.81 7.81 20.474 0 28.284L34.142 398.804C21.543 411.404 0 402.48 0 384.662z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><svg class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened e-font-icon-svg e-fas-caret-up\" viewBox=\"0 0 320 512\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\"><path d=\"M288.662 352H31.338c-17.818 0-26.741-21.543-14.142-34.142l128.662-128.662c7.81-7.81 20.474-7.81 28.284 0l128.662 128.662c12.6 12.599 3.676 34.142-14.142 34.142z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Source 3: Excerpts from the 2023 book Muddy Ground: Native Peoples, Chicago\u2019s Portage, and the Transformation of a Continent  by John William Nelson<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-9349\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"9\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-9349\"><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If your school has access, you can read the whole book on Project Muse <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/pub\/12\/monograph\/book\/114348\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here<\/span><\/a>.<\/p><figure id=\"attachment_1288\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1288\" style=\"width: 200px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1288\" src=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/John-William-Nelson-200x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"200\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/John-William-Nelson-200x300.png 200w, https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/John-William-Nelson.png 306w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1288\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">John William Nelson<\/figcaption><\/figure><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">John William Nelson is an Assistant Professor of History at Texas Tech University. He received his PhD from Notre Dame University. Nelson is an expert on early America, especially on how ecology and geography shaped interactions between Native people and European settlers.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Please note, in this source, the author uses \u201cAnishinaabe(g)\u201d to refer to the confederacy of Potawatomi, Ojibwe, and Odawa people, which we refer to as Neshnab\u00e9(k) throughout the curriculum. Both terms refer to the same confederacy &#8211; they are just used more or less frequently depending on the region.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><b>On the 1795 Treaty:\u00a0<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As [General Anthony] Wayne advanced his plan for fortifying Chicago\u2019s portage and controlling waterborne movement through the area, the Anishinaabe leadership of the Chicago towns protested. Traveling to Wayne\u2019s headquarters on July 16, 1796, a delegation of Potawatomi headmen representing at least four separate Anishinaabe towns around the [Chicago] portage demanded \u2018to known what chiefs gave you our land at Checago.\u2019 According to Wayne, the Chicago delegation \u2018pestered &amp; interrupted\u2019 him at his headquarters, demanding \u201cfurther and particular compensation\u201d for the six-mile tract at Chicago. Wabenaneto, speaking on behalf of the Potawatomi town near the southern portage, pointed out that neither he nor the headmen from north of the Chicago River had attended the Treaty of Greenville. According to the Chicago Indians, their \u2018great chief\u2019 was too elderly to have come forward either during the treaty or afterward to represent them properly. In the end, Wayne agreed to pay them directly for the land cession and doled out presents in exchange for some captives the Chicago chiefs had brought along. After six days of haranguing the U.S. commander, the western Anishinaabe leaders expressed their satisfaction at the new peace between the United States and the Northwest Indians, but also reiterated their own distance from the conflict [between more eastern tribes and the U.S. government] and their lack of consent with the cession of Chicago specifically. (p. 131)<\/span><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><b>On the 1816 Treaty:\u00a0<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In August 1816, Ninian Edwards, governor of Illinois, William Clark, territorial governor of Missouri, and Auguste Chouteau, a prominent St. Louis fur trader, acted as hosts to \u2018the chiefs and warriors of the united tribes of Ottawas, Chippewas, and Potawatomies, residing on the Illinois and Melwakee Rivers, and their waters, and on the southwestern parts of lake Michigan.\u2019 Journeying from towns southwest of Lake Michigan, the Anishinaabeg gathered to meet the U.S. treaty commissioners at the designated site. But these southwestern Anishinaabeg, suffering from low quantities of food, munitions, and other supplies since the war [of 1812] found themselves in a difficult position to bargain with the Americans. The government treaty commissioners used this to their advantage. Ninian Edwards, recognizing their current poverty and knowing the history of prosperity among the Chicago Anishinaabeg, used the proposed canal to appeal to their sense of commerce. He argued that a modest land cession of only twenty miles wide along the proposed canal route between Lake Michigan and the Illinois River, would increase the flows of trade through their lands. The Chicago-area Anishinaabeg would be enriched once again, this time by a canal route rather than a portage running through their territory. When this line of argument along failed to yield results, a promised of a $1000 annuity payment for the next twelve years delivered directly to the Anishinaabeg\u00a0 at Chicago and the Illinois River, convinced the poorly supplied Anishinaabeg to accept the U.S. proposal\u2026In all, the treaty did not signify an exceptionally large land transfer compared to other treaties of the day. The Chicago-area Anishinaabeg had managed to retain hunting and fishing rights in the relinquished lands, and the U.S Commissioners guaranteed Indigenous rights to continue living in and moving through the space so long as it remained the property of the government.<\/span><\/p><h6><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Source citation: John William Nelson, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Muddy Ground: Native peoples, Chicago\u2019s Portage, and the Transformation of a Continent. <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023), 131.\u00a0<\/span><\/h6><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2a19d3f e-con-full e-flex e-con e-child\" data-id=\"2a19d3f\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-97c7bfb e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"97c7bfb\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7a37b5e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7a37b5e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Downloadable Documents<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d75b587 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d75b587\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Everything in this module will be available to download as Word documents. Coming soon!<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>What were treaty talks like for Indigenous and United States signers and negotiators, and how did Indigenous and settler perspectives on land shape treaty negotiations?<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":1260,"parent":918,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1238","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.4 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Question 2 - Indigenous Chicago<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/test.newberry.org\/indigenous-chicago\/curriculum\/module-2\/question-2\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Question 2 - 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